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SOUTHWEST MUSEUM 
PAPERS 


Number Two 


Excavations at Casa Grande, Arizona 
February 12 --- May 1, 1927 
by Harold S. Gladwin, Research Fellow in Archaeology 


Published by the 
SOUTHWEST MUSEUM 
Highland Park, Los Angeles, California 


September, 1928 


Portion of Compound “‘A’’, Casa Grande 


The “Great House’ at Casa Grande in present condition, with modern roof 
to prevent further weathering 


FOREWORD 


The area of the ancient Pueblo civilization can be roughly defined 
as bounded on the west by the Colorado River, on the east by the Rio 
Grande, and on the north by the broken and mountainous country of 
Utah and Colorado. The southern boundary must remain indefinite 
until conditions in Mexico make it possible for archzologists to ex- 
amine the remains that undoubtedly exist in the northern part of that 
country, but about which nothing is known other than scattered col- 
lections from the Casas Grandes ruins in northern Chihuahua.* 

That section of the Pueblo area which is confined to the United 
States has been divided into eight sub-cultural districts? as follows: 

The Northern Peripheral: eastern Utah and eastern Nevada, with 
an as yet undefined border to the north and west. 

The San Juan: The drainage of the San Juan River in northern 
Arizona and southern Utah. 

The Little Colorado: The drainage of the Little Colorado River 
in northeastern Arizona. 

The Rio Grande: The drainage of the Rio Grande River in 
northern and central New Mexico. 

The Eastern Peripheral: An area difficult to define, lying between 
the Rio Grande Valley and the Great Plains to the east. 

The Upper Gila: The drainage of the Gila River in southeastern 
Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. 

The Mimbres: The drainage of the Mimbres River in southwest- 
ern New Mexico. 

The Lower Gila: South-central Arizona. 

Of these areas the San Juan and the Rio Grande have yielded the 
most important results up to the present time, both because of the 
greater effort expended upon them, and also because, in both regions, 
large ruins have been found containing the stratified evidence of many 
centuries of human habitation. 

In the San Juan, Pueblo Bonito has afforded a span of culture 
beginning with a pre-Pueblo type of pottery and house construction, 
and leading up to the best of the classic Pueblo period.° 

In the Rio Grande, Pecos stood for a thousand years or more, 
covering the span from about the time that Pueblo Bonito was aban- 
doned up to 1838 A.D., when it also was forsaken.* 

In order to make any further contribution that might shed light 
on the problem of human development in the Southwest, it was recog- 
nized that the Southwest Museum, in re-entering this field, should 
choose a site which might also show long-continued occupancy. 


1The Southwest Museum has published as Paper Number One in the present 
series, ‘‘Archeeological Reconnaissance in Sonora’, by Monroe Amsden, former 
Director of Field Work of the Southwest Museum.—Ed. 


2Kidder — 1924. 
3National Geographic Society—Pueblo Bonito Expedition, led by Neil M. Judd. 
4Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. Southwestern Expedition, led by A.V.Kidder. 


6 SouTHWEST MuSEUM PAPERS 


The Little Colorado area offers few, if any, ruins that might pro- 
vide such evidence, with the exception of the present day pueblos of 
Zuni, and the Hopi villages. 

Of the Upper Gila area practically nothing is known, as little 
work has yet been done other than that by Dr. Walter Hough in 1901 
and 1907. Ruins, while numerous, appear to be comparatively small 
and to have been occupied only for short periods. The same condi- 
tions seem to prevail in the Mimbres area. 

From the fact that corn was introduced from Mexico, and from 
the great agricultural development reached in the Gila Valley, it 1s 
possible that future investigation will show that this valley, draining 
all of southern Arizona, may have been an important link between the 
Pueblo culture and the civilizations of Mexico and Central America. 

In view of these considerations it was decided that tle area which 
has been defined as the Lower Gila offered the greatest opportunities, 
and the advice of Mr. Frank Pinkley, Superintendent of the South- 
western National Monuments at Casa Grande, was accdrdingly sought 
in selecting the best site for actual operations. 

Discussion with Mr. Pinkléy convinced us that we need look no 
further than Casa Grande itself. Camp was established in the shadow 
of the ruin, and the necessary steps were taken in order to carry out 
the purposes of the expedition. 

Briefly these purposes may be described as follows: 

FIRST—To conduct stratigraphic tests in some one central lo- 
cality in the hope of being able to define a sequence of culture. 

SECON D—The result of these tests to be used as a criterion to 
be applied to smaller ruins in the immediate vicinity, and so radiating 
out in ever-widening circles until adjoining cultures should be tapped. 

THIRD—The acquisition of material to be subordinated to the 
search for knowledge, since it was recognized that many museums ire 
filled with lifeless collections about which little or nothing is known. 

FOURTH—To do as little harm as possible; by which is meant 
that trenches and test-pits disturb a ruin but little as compared to 
systematic excavation in search of relics. 

This opportunity is taken to express sincere appreciation and 
deep gratitude to Mr. and Mrs, Frank Pinkley for assistance ren- 
dered, not only in helping in the choice of the area to be worked, but 
also in giving freely of the benefit of their experience, with much 
friendly encouragement. It would have been quite impossible to 
achieve the results embodied in this report, without their aid. 

Thanks are also due to Mr. George L. Boundey, then Assistant 
Custodian at Casa Grande, who has been unfailing in his helpfulness ; 
and to many other friends ‘whose advice has been of assistance. 

Note—In order to avoid confusion the Casa Grande group of ruins will here- 
after be referred to as ‘‘Casa Grande’’, ‘‘the ruins’’, ‘‘Casa Grande group’’, etc. 


When specific reference is made to the main building it will be designated as 
“The Great House’’. 


GLADWIN.: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 7 


Excavations at Casa Grande, Arizona 
A Report by Harold S. Gladwin 


Poni TION .OF THE RUINS ON FEBRUARY I, 1927 


The ruins of Casa Grande are situated in Pinal County, Arizona, 
nine miles west of Florence. The main building, rising 30 feet or 
more above the floor of the desert, is a prominent land-mark in the 
broad flat plain through which the Gila River flows in a westerly 
direction, 3% miles north of the ruin. 

This great plain is bounded along its northern border by broken, 
mountainous country which probably acted as a barrier in the past 
and served to isolate the people of the valley. Numerous small moun- 
tain ranges break the monotony of the plain, but none are high enough 
to add variation to the vegetation characteristic of the Great Southern 
Desert of Arizona... This includes the giant Sahuaro and many small 
er varities of cactus, Greasewood, Palo Verde and Mesquite; in the 
vicinity of the ruins there are at present only Greasewood and Mes- 
quite, which are thought to have replanted themselves since the land, 
formerly under cultivation, was abandoned. 

The surface of the plain is marked by a network of prehistoric 
irrigation ditches, many of which have been incorporated in modern 
systems to advantage. 

The groups of ruins, which are dominated by the Great House, 
are divided into units which have been described as compounds,' 
each one being a cluster of houses surrounded by a wall which in 
some cases was ten feet high. 

Within the compounds are dwellings of various types, showing 
a wide range of architectural technique. These features have been 
minutely described by Cosmos Mindeleff.? For the present, it will 
be enough to mention that actual construction varies from massive 
buildings of four stories, with walls four feet thick at the base, to 
single-room houses, the walls of which are only a few inches thick, 
laid up on a framework of pifion poles crossed by arrow-weed or 
other small rods, perfect examples of reinforced construction. 

These architectural types, while long recognized, have never been 
linked into a definite chronological sequence, since both sorts of con- 
struction have been found in each of the compounds excavated. This 
sequence must be determined wholly by excavation, the former occu- 
pants having left no descendants whose identity can be established. | 
The general area has been occupied during the Historic Period by 
the Pima Indians, but their culture shows no analogies with that of 
the builders of the compounds, and the term Hohokam, “that which 
has perished,” is used by the Pimas to designate the race that occupied 


1Fewkes, 1912. 
2Mindeleff, 1896-1897. 


8 SouTHWEST MusEuUM PAPERS 


the pueblos that are now rounded heaps of ruins in the Salt and Gila 
River Valleys.* 

The condition of Casa Grande in February 1927, can best be 
described by referring to a monograph by Mrs. Edna Townsley 
Pinkley. The views of Mr. and Mrs. Pinkley, quoted below, are the 
result of twenty-three years’ intimate association with the ruin, and 
sorting and selecting the ideas and theories of the many thousands of 
persons who have visited Casa Grande, amongst whom may be in- 
cluded many of the leading archeologists of the world: 

“The Casa Grande itself is a group of ruined walls, with the four 
story walls of the main building, or ‘big house’ dominating the scene. 
It has unfortunately been necessary to cover this building with a roof, 
which spoils the artistic effect, but which is very important for the 
preservation of the walls for future generations. This building is 
about forty by sixty feet and the walls stand about forty feet above 
the desert level. In this Casa Grande are eleven rooms (five on each 
of two floors and one on the highest story), with an additional five 
rooms on the ground floor which were filled in at the time of building 
to form an artificial terrace. The one room on the top floor must 
have been considered very important as it was gained at a sacrifice of 
five rooms on the ground floor. Its use was primarily as a watch 
tower, as from the ramparts above it a watchman could see as far 
as the vision would carry, but all the rooms were probably used as 
dwelling rooms. Around the main building are the ruins of many 
other rooms and groups of rooms, the whole surrounded by an outer 
wall, making a walled village, or compound, 216 by 420 feet. Most 
of these outlying rooms are one story in height, but several are two 
stories, and the group in the southwest corner is three stories high. 


“This is the main group called Compound A. Scattered within 
the area of the Monument (480 acres) are several other compounds 
which have been excavated, and an unknown number of older ones, 
unexcavated, some of which are definitely located, and probably there 
are even more as yet undiscovered. 


“Compound B, the second in importance, is about 900 feet north 
of Compound A, and is 165 x 300 feet. This compound presents a 
somewhat different appearance from A, as here the walls were not 
filled in to make an artificial terrace, but the terrace was built first, and 
upon it were reared houses of a more flimsy type. Surrounding these 
terraces, of which there were two, are rooms as in Compound A, some 
few of the solid type of wall used commonly in A, but more of a re- 
inforced type which will be considered later. The other compounds 
are older, more disintegrated, and consequently more interesting to 
the archeologist than to the layman. Exception must be taken in the 
case of the ruin east of the Casa Grande, which is called, for no obvi- 


3Russell, 1908. 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 9 


ous reason, “Clan House.” This is an interesting building with indi- 
cations of a surrounding wall. In this house there was a series of 
rooms surrounding an open plaza, and in the room at the end of the 
plaza which has two doors connecting, is the remains of a chair, throne 
or altar, around which are many interesting traditions ..... 

“The walls of the Casa Grande are four feet six inches thick at 
the base and were made without the use of any forms whatever. They 
were instead, piled up. The caliche of which they are made was 
puddled with water to a stiff mud, about the consistency which any 
child would tell you, is the proper stage for mud pies. This was car- 
ried in baskets and piled along the indicated lines. By the time one 
course was laid and patted into shape, it would have dried and be- 
come stiff enough for the next course, and thus, there is every evi- 
dence to believe, the walls were laid. This theory is strengthened by 
cross sections of the walls which show that the tops of the courses 
were curved and much higher in the centers than the sides. Just at 
the top of every story triangular layers were laid at the sides to 
straighten the tops of the walls before the roof beams were laid. 

“The walls were plastered with caliche rubbed through a sieve 
and plastered on by hand, making a hard, smooth, shiny finish which 
still endures and has become of a reddish hue with age. There are 
no windows and only low doors. The doors are small but this does 
not prove a small people, but rather meant protection from the ele- 
ments and from enemies. Some rooms had no doors, but must have 
been entered from the roofs. There were no openings in the sur- 
rounding walls which were, in A, eleven feet high.” 

Camp was established on February 12, 1927, in close proximity 
to the government buildings, and, after a preliminary inspection of 
the group of ruins, it was decided to confine our efforts to the rub- 
bish heaps which are an essential part of each of the Casa Grande com- 
pounds, and which afford opportunity for intensive investigation 
complying in all respects with the purposes of the Expedition already 
outlined. 

The rubbish mounds, as a general rule, are situated roughly 
northeast, east and southeast of the compounds with which they are 
associated, and are supposed to consist of litter and rubbish that was 
swept up, carried off and dumped on the mound by the inhabitants of 
the settlements. If this supposition be correct, it is not easy to explain 
the highly developed desire for cleanliness and order to which these 
mounds are a monument, since each mound contains many thousands 
of tons of earth, ash, etc. No other explanation, however, has been 
offered except by Cushing, who has referred to them as pyral mounds, 
where bodies were burned during the era when cremation was prac- 
tised. 


10 SouTHWEST MusEUM PAPERS 


OPERATION NO. 1 


We chose for our opening work, the rubbish mound due east of 
Compound B, designated in this report as Operation No. 1. This 
mound was partly excavated by Dr. Fewkes in 1907 and the area of 
his excavation can still be traced; we therefore sank our first test-pit 
slightly to the north, and on the extreme eastern edge of the mound. 
It required only a short time to show that we were working in undis- 
turbed ground, as the tilt of the original strata of ash and gravel was 
clearly apparent. 

A vertical pit ten feet long, running in a northerly and southerly 
direction, and two feet wide, was sunk into the mound to a depth of 
fourteen feet, strata being removed in six-inch layers. No artifacts 
were found other than broken pieces of pottery. All sherds were 
saved and sorted, and the following facts finally became evident: 

FIRST—that we were dealing with four broad types of pottery: 
plain cooking ware, red-ware, a ware with red decoration on a buff 
background, and a ‘polychrome ware with a black and white decora- 
tion on a red or brown ground. 

SECOND—The plain, the red, and the red-on-buff wares were 
present at all levels. 


THIRD—The polychrome ware was only found in the six upper 
layers. 


The Expedition Camp (Wm, M. Clarke Photo) 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 11 


FOURTH—The tilt of the strata of formation was such that it 
became immediately apparent that it would be difficult, if not impos- 
sible, to confirm the results of this test by sinking pits in other parts 
of the mound. 


In order to show the method of formation of the mound from its 
inception, a trench was run at right angles in an easterly and westerly 
direction. After cutting into the mound for approximately twenty 
feet, it was found that the strata all dipped sharply from west to 
east, and it was not until the trench had been cut right through the 
mound to the desert level, that we were able to determine that the 
original core had been started at the extreme western edge, and that 
all subsequent refuse had been dumped to the east. Since the pre- 
vailing winds at Casa Grande are from the southwest, it is probable 
that this practice was followed in order to prevent ash and dust from 
blowing back into the compound. It was therefore obvious that verti- 
cal pits could not serve to demonstrate the sequence of pottery types 
that was being sought, since each such pit would touch only a few 
strata. Horizontal tests were therefore resorted to as the best method 
of tapping all horizons. 


In making the actual test of this mound a core was excavated 
from the desert level on the west side, at the side of the trench, and 
through to desert level on the east side, rising slightly in the middle of 
the mound in order to avoid the confusion of strata when rubbish was 
dumped on the flat surface of the ground. This core was twelve 
inches deep and twelve inches wide, and was removed in five-foot 
sections, the sherd content averaging about a hundred sherds to each 
section. This method was followed in order to touch every cultural 
horizon in the mound in the order in which it was laid down. (See 
figure No. 1, page 28.) 


Analysis of the sherd content of the mound shows: 


FIRST—The nucleus of the mound was laid down during a 
period before the introduction of polychrome ware. 


SECOND—Ceramic wares in the order of their percentages are 
as follows: 


Mia CCP ee oe tits <i a, nase a che Rea ete 6038 
Red ware (smoke-blackened, burnished ).................. 1541 
Beer eile g Seyeay, eaten ee ee yas 
Recaro smoke-blackened, dull) ses 1190 
at AIG ate wi Se ee a a, Be cece aa .0006 


12 SouTHWEST MusEUM PAPERS 


THIRD—Of the red-on-buff sherds: 
89 showed no decoration; bottoms of ollas, bowls, etc. 
97 showed outside decoration; ollas. 
4. showed inside decoration ; bowls. 
4 showed flaring rims; (See figure No. 2, page 28.) 
1 showed re-turned rim; (See figure No. 3, page 28.) 
1 showed interior smoke-blackened and burnished. 
From these figures the following deductions may be made:* 


FIRST—Sherds of bowls of red-on-buff ware with interior 
decoration were scarce. 


SECOND—Bowls during this period were chiefly of red ware, 
the interiors being smoke-blackened and burnished. 


THIRD—Ollas were made of red ware, the interiors being 
smoke-blackened and dull, and of red-on-buff, the necks of which 
were chiefly vertical. (See figure No. 4, page 28.)? 

FOURTH—tThree were found in the eastern half of this mound, 
black-on-red sherds with designs typical of Little Colorado ware, 
and the smoke-blackened, burnished corrugated ware of the same 
region with decoration in white on the outside. 


OPERATION NO. 2 


The rubbish mound excavated during Operation No. 2 lies due 
east of the main Casa Grande ruin in Compound A. The mound 
showed a heavy content of ash, but the analysis of potsherds added 
little, if anything, to our knowledge of the site, other than to show 
that polychrome ware was present in the east half of the mound. The 
same method of taking the test was followed as in Operation No. 1. 

An analysis of the sherd content of the mound shows: 

FIRST—As in operation No. 1, the mound was begun before the 
introduction of polychrome ware. 

SECON D—Ceramic wares in the order of their frequency are 
as follows: 


Plain ware .L..ccceccr- ed a .7000 
Red ware (smoke-blackened, burnished) ................. 1203 
Red ware. (smoke-blackened, dull). ane .1204 
Red-on-bufl. 022.02. esl er 0540 
Polychrome: 2... 362 eG ee 0033 
Intrusive. 1.i.s4:ccc.5 ot Se .0020 

1.0000 


1EKarly efforts to create distinctions in plain ware resulted in failure, and the 
problem has been left to the future. In this report plain ware is ignored except 
in tables of percentages. 

2A distinction has been made between sherds, smoke-blackened-dull, and those 
which are burnished. This distinction is clearly apparent in whole pieces but 
it is difficult to maintain a standard for judging sherds, and the figures given 
for these two classes must be looked upon as approximate. 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 15s 


Third—Ogf the red-on-buff sherds: 
35 showed no decoration; bottoms of ollas, bowls, etc. 
44 showed outside decoration; ollas. 
1 showed inside decoration; bowl. 
1 showed inside and outside decoration; bowl. 
2 showed interior smoke-blackened and burnished. 
SUMMARY—Compared with operation No. 1: 
Of the undecorated types, plain ware shows an increase at the 
expense of smoke-blackened red ware, both burnished and dull. 
Of the decorated types, polychrome increases as red-on-buff 
drops off. 
Intrusive sherds also show an increase, the types being black- 
on-red, characteristic of Little Colorado culture. 


OPERATIONINO..3 


Mound situated South of No. 2 and directly in rear of the Ex- 
pedition camp. It was trenched, and tests were taken in the same 
manner as in No. 1 and No. 2. Polychrome ware was found to be 
present in all sections from west to east, but with a marked increase 
in the last eastern sections. 

Analysis of the sherd content of the mound shows: 


FIRST—Polychrome ware was already in vogue when the 
mound was begun. 3 

SECOND—Ceramic wares in the order of their frequency are 
as follows: 


re mT Re es a a ee eee tenes 7443 
Red ware (smoke-blackened, burnished) .................. 1421 
Red ware (smoke-blackened, dull) -......................----.-- 0580 
nei sn a i eee ee Oe 20352 
EN hie oo Sant ere Pete et a ae ak aed ae 0195 
1 ry SO BB er ie la ea ke Sa ph eh revs 0009 

1.0000 


THIRD—Of the red-on-buff sherds: 

12 showed no decoration; bottoms of ollas, bowls, etc. 
50 showed outside decoration; ollas. 

2 showed inside decoration ; bowls. 

6 showed inside and outside decoration; bowls. 

3 showed interior smoke-blackened and burnished. 


SUMM ARY—Compared with operations No. 1 and No. 2. 

Of the undecorated wares, plain shows a further increase, with 
smoke-blackened, burnished red ware also increasing at the expense 
of smoke-blackened, dull red ware. 


14 SouTHWEST MusEuM PAPERS: 


Of the decorated types red-on-buff again shows a decline as 
polychrome increases, 

Intrusive sherds were found of the black-on-red pottery typical 
of the wares from the Little Colorado area from the vicinity of St. 
Johns. There were also a few sherds of yellow ware, typical of Early 
Hopi culture of the period immediately preceding the Spanish 
invasion. 


OPERATION NO. 4 


This mound is situated about one mile east of the main Casa 
Grande ruin, just beyond the tracks of the Southern Pacific Railroad 
and outside the boundary of the National Monument. 

Three rubbish mounds are clearly defined, of which that ex- 
cavated as Operation No. 4 is the largest, but persistent search has 
failed to reveal any trace of the walls of the houses with which these . 
mounds must, at one time, have been associated. 

A trench which was cut through the mound from west to east 
gave no indication of its formation; numerous short strata of ash 
and charcoal inclined at different angles and no definite core was 
found. 

A vertical pit, eight feet long and two feet wide, was sunk in the 


Red-on-buff bowl, decorated with small repeated elements 
’ (Wm. M. Clarke Photo) 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 15 


centre of the mound and six-inch layers were removed. Four other 
pits were sunk, north, south, east, and west, at distances of thirty 
feet from the centre, to find out if any variation existed in an east- 
west or north-south direction sufficient to warrant a horizontal test. 
No such variation was found. 

Analysis of the sherd content of the mound shows: 

FIRST—No trace of polychrome ware was found in the mound. 


SECON D—Ceramic wares in the order of their frequency are 
as follows: 


Center N. = Fe W. 
ROY Gye a ae Gere sae er 0202— 0002" 7 68/0 
Red-ware (smoked-blackened, 

Cs. ale ec 1044 .0625 .1054 0718 .0600 
oS Po Ope wool) 2004) 2930) *~ 2530 
Red-ware (smoke-blackened, 

Pe tuiseC ) one. —S ———-- i ——-- > > 
Mee r@ite 26... eee 


1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 


THIRD—Of the red-on-buff sherds: 

540 showed no decoration; bottoms of ollas, bowls, etc. 

493 showed outside decoration; ollas. 

312 showed inside decoration; bowls. 

206 were from bowls with flaring rims. See figure No. 2. 
13 were from ollas with sharply re-turned rims. See figure 

‘\Veraey 

35 showed designs consisting of small repeated elements. 


SUMMARY—tThis operation probably contains more signifi- 
cance than any other single operation, since it holds promise of afford- 
ing valuable information in regard to the sequence of red-on-buff 
types both as to shape and design. The following points have been 
selected as noteworthy: 

FIRST—The appearance of sherds of bowls with inside decora- 
tion consisting of small, repeated elements of design, dots, dashes 
and many small markings which roughly suggest the letters of our 
alphabet. 

SECOND—Filaring rims of bowls the shape of inverted bells, 
decorated only on the inside with small elements and broad solid 
designs. 

THIRD—Rims of ollas were found to be sharply re-turned; 
sherds with outside decoration were probably fragments of these ollas 
as no bowl-rims were found showing outside decoration. 

FOURTH—A few sherds showed a lightly incised line-decora- 
tion. 


16 SouTHWEST MusEUM PAPERS 


FIFTH—Sherds were present from vessels of red-ware with 
dull smoke-blackened interiors, probably small ollas. No smoke- 
blackened burnished ware was found. 

In association with the above sherds of local wares there were 
present fragments of the black-on-white pottery of the northern cul- 
tures and also a few pieces of the rough gray heavily corrugated ware 
of the Little Colorado area. 

It should also be noted that, in this mound, no lumps of wall 
material (caliche) were found. 


OPERATION NOw3 


This covers the small ruin located at Adamsville, five miles east 
of Casa Grande on the road to Florence. Of the three ruins at this 
site, this operation refers only to the central low mound lying east of 
the main ruin of Adamsville. 

The type of culture closely parallels that of Operation No. 1 in 
compound B at Casa Grande, and the two settlements were probably 
allied and contemporaneous. The rubbish mounds (see Operation 
No. 6) indicate a long period of red-on-buff occupancy with a thin 
capping of polychrome during the final stages. 

The ruin has suffered greatly at the hands of vandals, probably 
Apache, floors being covered with a thick layer of sherds, apparently 
the remains of many whole pieces that were crushed when the build- 
ings were demolished. In confirmation of the analysis of the sherd 
content of the rubbish mound (see operation No. 6), a few under- 
lying rooms were found to contain, in decorated ware, only red-on- 
buff sherds, and in connection therewith the wall construction was 
exclusively of the reinforced type. These rooms were filled with 
rubbish, sand, ash, sherds, etc., but above them other rooms had been 
built, the walls of which were of the massive type of construction, 
the sherds in association being the same as in the lower rooms, but 
with the addition of polychrome ware. 

Cremation burials in red-on-buff and red-ware ollas were found 
southwest of the rubbish mound designated as operation No. 6; a few 
polychrome bowls and vases were found in the rooms of the ruin but 
not in association with burials. 


OPERATION NO. 6 


The rubbish mound formed by the occupants of the building ex- 
cavated during Operation No. 5, lies about 100 yards east of the 
ruin. A horizontal test was made similar to those in Operations No. 
1, No. 2, and No. 3, and in general No. 6 can be said to represent 
about the same stage of culture as Operation No. 1; in other words, 
a red-on-buff era followed by a short polychrome period. 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 17 


Analysis of the sherd content of the mound: 
FIRST—As in Operations No. 1 and No. 2 the mound was 
begun before the introduction of polychrome ware. 


SECON D—Ceramic wares in the order of their frequency are 
as follows: ) 


RE et oe en cs Nl a A th ee tot 6547 
Red ware (smoke-blackened, burnished).................. .1706 
ied wate (smoke-blackened, dull) ..-...:24.5144.-:- .1000 
a eee se eee cg artes obs 0628 
BCT iee te tee ee ee el er ee 0119 

1.0000 


THIRD—Of the red-on-buff sherds: 
53 showed no decorations; bottoms of ollas, bowls, etc. 
76 showed outside decoration; ollas. 
5 showed inside decoration; bowls. 
3 showed inside and outside decoration; bowls. 
SUMMARY—Comparison of these figures with those of Oper- 
ae No. 1 will show that this mound represents the same type of 
culture. 


OPERATION NO. 7 


To the south of Operation No. 1 there is a flat piece of ground 
where, some years ago, Mr. George L. Boundey, former Assistant 
Custodian at Casa Grande, discovered quantities of burnt turquoise 
beads. It has been supposed that these beads were burned during the 
period when cremation, was practised. An effort to recover a sub- 
stantial amount of these beads resulted in the finding of the burial 
ground of Compound B, twenty-seven cremation burials coming to 
light in this one area. 

The ollas containing the cremated bones were usually small, the 
_ pottery being either red ware with occasional dull smoke-blackened 
interiors, or red-on-buff ware with vertical necks and well executed 
geometric designs. No polychrome ware was found in association 
with cremations. ‘The ollas were resting on a solid bed of caliche 
about fifteen inches below the surface of the ground. 

Two earth-burials unaccompanied by any funeral furniture, were 
also found, the bodies lying prone, with heads to the east. 


OPERATION NO. 8 
Situated about half-way between Mounds Nos. 1 and 4. The 
desert in this locality is perfectly flat except for three low rubbish 
mounds. Slightly to the west of the mounds a thin straight line of 
grass, about four feet long, was found after the spring rains. Ex- 


18 SouTHWEST MusEuM PAPERS 


cavation revealed that this marked, not the wall of a house as had 
been supposed, but the wall of a new compound. Unlike all other 
compounds in the Casa Grande group, the axis lies in an easterly and 
westerly direction, the area being roughly 200 by 100 feet. 

It has not yet been possible to carry on any extensive excavation 
in this compound, but up to the present the walls of houses within 
the compound, which have been uncovered, have all been of the rein- 
forced type of construction. One small bird-shaped vessel of red 
ware and one plain olla are the only pieces of pottery found. 


OPERATION NO. 9 


A small ruin about one hundred yards north of Operation No. 5 
and probably a part of the same settlement, although it does not seem 
to have been built during the earlier stages, as the walls are of the 
massive type of construction and the sherds do not show any pure 
red-on-buff occupancy. 

Architecturally the chief point of interest centres in what appears 
to be a bonded corner of the standing wall, a detail of construction 
rarely found in American aboriginal structures. 

The remains of a woman were found in one of the rooms of 
this ruin, prone, with head to the south, the arms folded over the 
breast; the skeleton was resting on partly charred logs covering the 
floor in the centre of the room, but whether the logs were there by 
chance or intention is not known. No mortuary offerings were 
found. 


OPERATION NO. 10 


The rubbish mound southeast of the compound designated as 
No. 8. This mound was the smallest of the three trash heaps associ- 
ated with the new compound. It has been badly disturbed by badgers 
and no sherd test was taken. No polychrome sherds were found 
either on the surface or in excavating the trench. 


OPERATION NO. 11 


Efforts to find a burial ground south or west of Mound No. 10 
disclosed several plain sherds and fragments of a bowl which may 
have represented a cremation burial. The ground has been badly 
disturbed, however, and the evidence is therefore uncertain. 


OPERATION NOW 


The central and largest mound connected with the new com- 
pound. The mound has been badly dug up by badgers and no effort 
was made to effect a horizontal test. A vertical pit was sunk in the 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 19 


middle of the mound ‘to ascertain the types which might be present, 
rather than in the hope of finding superimposed cultures. 
Analysis of the sherd content of the mound shows: 


FIRST—No trace of polychrome ware. 


SECON D—Ceramic wares in the order of their frequency are.as 
follows: 


Toait ware... so ed Gay See Stele an seal eon ae aa tor e .6762 
Red-ware (smoke-blackened, dull) -...............-.--.--.--- .1300 
ete ey ees es ae ee eects nb El weectld .1180 
Red-ware (smoke-blackened, burnished) .................. 0758 

1.0000 


THIRD—Of the red-on-buff sherds: 
67 showed no decoration; bottoms of ollas, bowls, etc. 
115 showed outside decoration; ollas. 
87 showed inside decoration; bowls. 
13 showed small repeated elements in design. 
5 showed flaring bowl-rims. 
6 showed vertical olla necks. 


SUMMARY—The sherds in this mound disclosed that bowls 
with flaring rims and inside decoration, such as were found in Opera- 
tion No. 4 were present in association with ollas having vertical necks 
such as were characteristic in Operations No. 1, 2 and 3. The num- 
ber of sherds showing inside decoration more nearly approaches the 
number showing outside decoration than in any other mound and 
there is reason to suppose that this operation represents an intermedi- 
ate stage between the period represented by No. 4 and that of No. 1, 
No. 2 and No. 3. 


No polychrome ware was discovered; a few red-on-buff sherds 
with lightly incised lines were found, also one sherd of corrugated 
ware with black-on-white inside decoration. 


OPERATLON NOSIS 


The discovery of burnt turquoise beads south of Operation No. 
12 led to trenching, which disclosed the burial ground at this site. 
Several small urns containing bones of cremations were found, some 
being of red ware, others of red-on-buff ware with well executed 
geometric designs of simple pattern. 


20 SouTHWEST MuSEUM PAPERS 


CONCLUSIONS 
I 


Since our efforts were directed primarily toward the establish- 
ment of a pottery sequence, an analysis of these results is presented 
before the introduction of other factors. 


POTTERY—Four distinct wares are to be found: 


1—Plain; usually brown in colour, unslipped; tempering mater- 
ial, mica, sand or gravel, ranging from fine to coarse; vessels chiefly 
ollas; used for cooking and water storage, some having been found 
holding as much as 25 gallons. 

As already admitted, all efforts to distinguish types or consistent 
variations in plain ware resulted in failure; it appears to be the case 
that from the earliest times at Casa Grande the technique of making 
vessels of plain ware has undergone no appreciable change as regards 
paste, tempering material, vessel shapes, rims or necks. 


2—Red-Ware. Generally similar to the red ware to be found 
throughout the Southwest but probably more prevalent in the Gila 
Valley than elsewhere. It occurs in three types, plain, smoke-black- 
ened dull, and smoke-blackened burnished. Judging from Operations 
No. 1 and No. 4, plain red vessels are to be found at all periods, chiefly 
in the form of small ollas which were frequently used to hold the 
ashes of cremation burials. 


The sequence of red-ware will be more easily determined by the 
application of other criteria than by an attempt to analyze the types 
per se; to distinguish between the dull and the burnished sherds is 
often very difficult and is therefore uncertain as a diagnostic. 


3—Polychrome: Black and white decoration on a red or brown 
base; a distinct technique in marked contrast to other Southwestern 
pottery types, with the exception of the Chihuahua polychrome with 
which it is closely allied. 


A brief investigation (Operation No. 1) gave clear evidence that 
polychrome ware was a late arrival at Casa Grande and little effort 
was made to differentiate the types. These seem to fall into three 
groups: 

A—Two colour decoration: Black and white decoration on a red 
or brown base; chiefly bowls with decoration only on the inside. 


B—Three colour decoration: Black, white and red decoration on 
a red or brown base; chiefly bowls with decoration only on the inside. 


C—Two or three colour decoration: Bowls with inside and out- 
side decoration. 

Other vessel shapes are vases, ladles, bird-effigies; ollas, when 
made, are small, rarely approaching the size of the plain or red-on- 
buff ollas. 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 21 


~4—Red-on-buff ; buff slip, not polished*, on a paste which var- 
ies in colour from grey through tan to pink; tempering material 
usually fine, contains mica. The paint used in decoration ranges from 
a thin mustard colour to a deep maroon and will probably prove to 
be significant as a standard of classification under intelligent treat- 
ment. 

The span of decoration also offers unusual opportunities to the 
student of aboriginal design, as the early stages, which are character- 
ized by small repeated elements, may be regarded as elementary, 


Polychrome Dipper and Bowl (Wm. M. Clarke Photo) 


whereas the late stages compare favorably with the best of geometric 
decoration in other cultures, particularly in negative design. 


II 


Red-on-buff ware has been selected as offering greater possibil- 
ities of interpretation and classification than any other ; although it is 
probable that the earliest, and possibly the latest, stages are only partly 
represented at Casa Grande. The following sequence is suggested, 
based partly on theory but also covering the data which have been 
disclosed by the work of the Expedition: 


*Polishing over the slip and decoration was practiced during the late phase 
when bowl interiors were smoke-blackened and burnished. 


2s SouTHWEST MusEUM PAPERS 


It is reasonable to suppose that, following upon the development 
in the Southwest of the Basketmaker culture, a uniform culture per- 
sisted for a considerable period. How widespread this may have been, 
or how long it lasted, is not now under discussion; it is enough to 
say that there were subsequent phases such as post-Basketmaker, pre- 
Pueblo or Transitional, which were to some extent, characterized by 
so-called Pit-house culture. In all probability the original parent 
culture had already begun to split into numerous sub-cultures under 
the varying conditions of environment, since it is becoming increas- 
ingly apparent that even the Pit-house culture was not everywhere 
the same. 

However this may be, the first indications of human occupancy 
in the Gila Valley are presumably to be found in pit-houses. One 
such site has been discovered on the Santa Cruz river by Dr. Cum- 
mings and several others have been mentioned as occurring among 
the ruins at Casa Grande. 7 

The writer is not sufficiently familiar with pit-houses to be able 
to comment intelligently on the circular depressions at Casa Grande, 
but taking into consideration the fact that the ruins are 3% miles 
south of the Gila River the question presents itself whether it is rea- 
sonable to suppose that, in early days, an irrigation system was already 
in use without which it would have been difficult for the pit-dwellers 
to live at such a distance from the river; and furthermore, granted 
that this was the case, what the influence could have been which caused 
them to exercise such a choice. It is quite possible, however, that 
typical pit-house culture will be found on the broad benches near the 
river. 

The earliest stage of culture, judging in terms of pottery, is to 
be found in Operation No. 4 where red-on-buff ware is found in the 
form of bowls with wide flaring rims (Figure No. 2), and ollas with 
sharply re-turned rims (Figure No. 3). Decoration was applied with 
a heavy maroon paint on an unpolished buff slip. In the case of bowls 
the designs consisted of small repeated elements and of broad solid 
designs, with decoration only on the inside of the vessel, lightly in- 
cised lines occasionally having been drawn on the outside. In the 
case of ollas, the designs are usually broad and solid, or else rather 
crude geometric figures mixed with repeated dots, dashes, squiggles, 
etc. In both cases the small elements are occasionally found to have 
been developed into little bugs, lizards, birds, etc., chasing each other 
in endless procession around the vessel. 

While this type of decoration is found at Casa Grande, it is not 
common, and I feel sure that it did not originate there. The dis- 
covery of a pure small element site would help to settle the question. 
~ my deductions are correct, such a site should antedate Operation 

o. 4. 
The type of house structure at this period is not known as no 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 23 


trace of walls or foundations have been found. It is my guess, how- 
ever, that the people responsible for Mound No. 4, lived in small 
clusters of one-room houses, possibly with wattle walls such as the 
Pima use today, possibly already using the reinforced pifion and 
caliche walls which later were adopted as standard construction. 
Whether compound walls were built at this time is not known, but I 
should be inclined to doubt it. 


No burials have as yet been found in Operation No. 4, but it 
is probable that cremation was practised, as this seems to have been 
customary during the red-on-buff era. 


The next stage is more clearly marked through the discovery 
of the new compound, Operation No. 8; here the flaring rimmed 
bowls are still found, in reduced numbers, together with ollas with re- 
turned rims, the decoration in both cases being identical with the 
corresponding types in Operation No. 4. In addition, however, there 
are small red-on-buff ollas with vertical necks, (Figure 4), the deco- 
ration of which is carried out with an anaemic mustard-coloured paint 
which almost immediately dissolves when the vessel is washed in a 
solution of muriatic acid. Designs are purely geometric, the com- 
bination with small elements having been dropped. It is unfortunate 
that we were unable to obtain any stratified evidence but the mounds 
are small and have been churned up by badgers for many hundreds of 
years. 

Before beginning excavations at this site the ground was per- 
fectly level as was the case in Operation No. 4, and it was with great 
surprise that we followed walls for 200 feet in a straight line under 
a surface which gave no clew. We were unable to complete the ex- 
cavations within the compound walls, but present indications point 
to a settlement of one-room houses, of reinforced construction, cluster- 
ing within a compound wall, 200 feet by 100 feet of massive con- 
struction. 

Cremation burials were found, the remains being placed in urns 
of red-ware and small red-on-buff ollas with vertical necks, as 
described above. 

New links will probably be found to connect No. 8 with the 
main Casa Grande group of ruins, since the population must have 
greatly increased over that of the early days and a tendency was de- 
veloping of drawing in on a common centre. In the meantime, how- 
ever, the connection is clear between No. 8 and Operation No. 1, the 
early stages of which show the culture to have been analogous to that 
of No. 8. 

It is not until the middle and late stages of the formation of 
Mound No. 1 that polychrome ware makes its first appearance on 
the local stage, although when it does appear, it arrives as a fully 
developed technique and shows no introductory stages. 


(004d OHIVIO “WW “UIAA) yj4oN Ouyoo, ..g,, punodmoy 


GLADWIN: ExXcAvaTIONsS AT CASA GRANDE 25 


Mound No. 1 is possibly the largest of any of the rubbish mounds 
in the Casa Grande group, and is here taken as best representing the 
change in culture over a long period of time. The changes in pottery 
technique are listed in the order of their occurrence from west to 
baer, (oee.Bigure 1), 


Red-on-buff bowls with flaring rims are practically absent. 


i 
_ 2. Red-on-buff sherds showing interior decoration are prac- 
tically absent. 


Sa herds of red-ware with smoke-blackened, burnished inte- 
rior first appear in the west end of the trench. 


4. Red-ware, smoke-blackened, burnished, increases as red- 
ware, smoke-blackened, dull, declines. This is also true in Mounds 
NosZ, and No.3. 


5. Plain-ware shows a gradual increase through Mounds No. 1, 
Zand 3. 


6. From the time of its first appearance, polychrome ware 
shows a steady increase. 


7. With the advent of polychrome, red-on-buff shows a steady 
decline. 


8. Soon after the advent of polychrome, a new technique was 
developed in red-on-buff with decoration on both the inside and out- 
side of bowls. The bowl interiors are smoked to a slaty grey upon 
which the design, usually a band, is drawn. The paint is again heavy 
and maroon in color, as in the early period at No. 4. 


9. The last stages at Casa Grande are marked by a new and 
entirely different development of red-on-buff ware. Bowl interiors 
are smoked to a rich and glossy black, and both the inside and out- 
side of the vessel are burnished. Decoration is applied with heavy 
maroon paint but the designs are unlike any of those which formerly 
were used and consist largely of maze patterns. This phase of red- 
on-buff overlaps with that described above as having inside and out- 
side decoration, both types are contemporaneous with polychrome and 
I am inclined to believe that their origin is to be sought outside of 
Casa Grande. 


10. Intrusive sherds at Casa Grande tend to confirm, in a 
general way, the broad outlines of chronology which have been sug- 
gested. In Mound No. 4 there were found black-on-white sherds of 
the type which has been described as proto-Kayenta ; also a few pieces 
of the corrugated wares typical of early northern culture. In Mound 
No. 1, there were found sherds of black-on-red and also fine cor- 
rugated ware, smoke-blackened and burnished, with white outside 
decoration, both of which types are plentiful in the region about St. 
Johns in the Little Colorado area. 


26 SouTHWEST MuSEUM PAPERS 


In Mound No. 2, which is regarded as being a little later than 
No. 1, there were found sherds of the yellow ware with brown decora- 
tion which is characteristic of Hopi culture of the period immediately 
preceding the Spanish invasion. 

In addition to the changes in pottery technique which have been 
enumerated, several other important cultural changes took place dur- 
ing the formation of Mound No. 1, foremost among which are the 
following: 

1. The use of terraces, as in Compound B, upon which houses 
of reinforced construction were built. 

Later, in building the Great House, the entire first floor was filled 
with earth which was carried in and it has been suggested that the pur- 
pose was to give a solid base in order to support the unusual height 
of the building (see page 8). This may be correct but, as Mrs. 
Pinkley implies, the tremendous labor of filling in this floor was hardly 
justified by the meagre advantage of being able to add one room as a 
fourth story. The flood conditions which exist today in the southern 
Mississippi Valley have suggested the idea that the mounds of that 
region were formed to meet the recurring menace of floods. If we 
consider the architectural peculiarities of Casa Grande with this fac- 
tor in mind, rather than to attempt to explain them as purely defen- 
sive, the conditions will appear to be more reasonable. The need for 
defense by the inhabitants of Casa Grande has possibly been over- 
emphasized, since it would seem that their chief defense must have 
lain in their isolated situation, rather than in artificial barriers. If they 
had been subjected to the persistent persecution which these earth- 
works would suggest, had they been designed for defense, the colony 
would quickly have succumbed as nothing could be simpler, or more 
effective, than to make a hole in the side of the irrigation ditch upon 
which the settlement depended for its water. It is posible that even 
the compound walls were built as much for flood protection as for 
defense. 

The question will at once be asked, is it known that floods have 
occurred at Casa Grande? 

The obliteration of house sites and compound walls which has 
already been referred to in Operation No. 4and No. 8, gives evidence 
of a levelling process which must have exercised great power in the 
past; the bases of all standing walls in the area also show the effects 
of erosion (see also Mindeleff)*. In recent years the museum at 
the Casa Grande National Monument was seriously damaged by being 
flooded as a result of heavy rains, and, no doubt, other instances could 
be cited. 

When one stops to realize the magnitude of the disaster of a 
flood to a people entirely dependent upon a reserve of stored grain, 


*Mindeleff 1896—p. 300. 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 27 


no precaution seems too great to take, so that the idea which prompted 
the building of the Great House was perhaps one of adequate storage 
protection, rather than of building a fortress, as thought by Bandelier, 
or a temple, as suggested by Cushing and Fewkes. It is true that 
there are few, if any, rooms at Casa Grande which can positively be 
looked upon as ceremonial, but the building of a temple would have 
been an entirely new departure for any branch of the Pueblo people 
and it would also have been unlike them to have dropped such an 
institution when once it had been launched. 


2. It was during the period of Mound No. 1 that the reinforced 
type of wall gave way to massive construction in which caliche was 
laid in horizontal courses. It has frequently been stated that boxes 
or forms were used into which the caliche was poured and allowed to 
set, that this was the method which was employed in making the walls 
of the Great House, but no evidence has been found to support this 
statement. The walls of the Great House are over four feet thick, 
and in order to hold the sides of a form together when such a mass 
was tamped in place, it would have been necessary to use cross ties to 
prevent the sides from spreading. It would have been almost im- 
possible to remove such ties after the caliche had hardened sufficiently 
for the forms to be moved, and minute inspection has failed to give 
any sign of cross ties or of the holes which would have remained had 
they been removed. 


3. A change of great significance took place during this same 
period when inhumation replaced cremation as a burial custom. All 
the cremations found at Casa Grande, in Operations No. 6, No. 7 and 
No. 13, were contained in urns of either red-ware or red-on-buff. 
Very few inhumations were found, and while these were unaccom- 
panied by mortuary offerings, they were either buried in rooms of the 
polychrome period, or polychrome sherds were found in association. 

This gives rise to the thought that too many changes took place 
at this time to be accounted for by normal progress and the suggestion 
is offered that the advent of polychrome ware indicates a successful 
invasion which was followed by sweeping changes in pottery, archi- 
tecture and burial customs. 


Figure 1 
CROSS SECTION 


SoutH FaAckr. 


Gur 2: 


i 


OpERATION No. 


Figure 4 
Red on Buff Olla 
Vertical Neck 


Figure 3 
Red on Buff Olla 
Neck Sharply Re-turned 


Figure 2 
Red on Buff 
Inverted Bell Shaped Bowl 


Flaring Rim 


GLADWIN: EXCAVATIONS AT CASA GRANDE 29 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BANCROFT, H. H.—Bancroft’s Works. Native Races, San Fran- 
cisco—1883. 

BANDELIER, A. F.—Final Report of Investigations among the 
Indians of the Southwestern United States. pp 435. 

Papers of the Archeological Institute of America. 
American series IV, part II, Cambridge—1892. 

BROWN, HERBERT—A _ Pima-Maricopa Ceremony, Lancaster, 
1906. American Anthropologist N. S. Vol. 8. Page 688. 

CUSHING, F. H.—Preliminary Notes on the Origin, Working 
Hypothesis and Primary Researches of the Hemenway South- 
western Archzological Expedition. Congrés International des 
Américanistes. Berlin 1890. 

EMORY, W. H.—Notes of a Military Reconnaisance from Fort 
Leavenworth, in Missouri, to San Diego, in California, etc. 
Thirtieth Congress, Ist Session, Senate Executive No. 7, Wash- 
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FEWKES, J. W.—On the Present Condition of a Ruin in Arizona 
called Casa Grande. 

Journal of American Ethnology and Archeology, Vol. 2, p. 176- 
192 Cambridge—1892. 

FEWKES, J. W.—Two Summers’ Work in Pueblo Ruins. ‘Twenty- 
second Annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 
Washington—1904. 

FEWKES, J. W.—A Fictitious Ruin in Gila Valley, Arizona. Ameri- 
can Anthropologist. N.S. Vol. 9, Page 510—Lancaster—1907. 

FEWKES, J. W.—Casa Grande, Arizona. 
28th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology,— 
179 Washingion—1912. 

HEWETT, EDGAR L.—A General view of the Archzology of the 
Pueblo Region. Washington—1905. 

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1904. 

HODGE, F. W.—Prehistoric Irrigation in Arizona, American An- 
thropologist, Vol. 6, No. 3, Washington—1893. 

HRDLICKA, ALES—Notes on the San Carlos Apache, Lancaster, 
1905. American Anthropologist N. S. Vol. 7. Page 480. 

HRDLICKA, ALES—Notes on the Pima of Arizona, Lancaster, 
1906. American Anthropologist N. S. Vol. 8. Page 39. 

KIDDER, A. V.—An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern 
Archeology, New Haven—1924. 

KROEBER, A. L.—Preliminary Sketch of the Mojave Indians. 

American Anthropologist N. S. Vol. 4, New York, 1902. 


30 SoUTHWEST MUSEUM PAPERS 


KROEBER, A. L.—Yuman tribes of the Lower Colorado. Uni- 


versity of California Publications in American Archeology and 


Ethnology. Berkeley, 1920. Vol. 16, No. 8. p. 475. 
KROEBER-HENRIETTE-ROTHSCHILD—Pima  Tales—Lan- 
caster—1908. American Anthropologist N. S. Vol. 1, Page 231. 
MASON, J. ALDEN—The Papago Harvest Festival. Lancaster 
1920. American Anthropologist N. S. Vol. 2. Page 13. 


MINDELEFF, COSMOS—Casa Grande Ruin. 
Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology pp 289- 
319 Washington—1896. 
The Repair of Casa Grande Ruin. 
Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp 315- 
349 Washington—1897. 


PINKLEY, EDNA T.—Casa Grande, The Greatest ‘Valley Pueblo 


of Arizona. / 
Arizona Archeological and Historical Society—1926. 
RUSSELL, FRANK—The Pima Indians. 
Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnol- 
ogy, pp 3-399 Washington—1908. 
TURNEY, OMAR A.—The Land of the Stone Hoe. Phoenix, 1924. 


Amulet of pink shell and turquoise mosaic, thunderbird design. 
From Casa Grande ruins. 
Geo. L. Boundey (Photo, Copyright) © 


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